The Evolution of the Longbow: A Formidable Weapon in Medieval Warfare
In the realm of medieval weaponry, the English longbow stood tall, stretching approximately 6 feet (18 m) in length. Scholars have long debated its birthplace, with some tracing its origins to Wales and the Welsh bow. By the 14th century, English and Welsh warriors had firmly embraced this formidable weapon, employing it in warfare and hunting.
During the Hundred Years’ War, the English longbow demonstrated its mettle against the French, etching its name in history. The battles of Sluys (1340), Crécy (1346), Poitiers (1356), and the iconic Battle of Agincourt (1415) showcased the longbow’s prowess, unleashing devastation upon the enemy ranks. These pivotal victories highlighted the strategic mastery and profound impact of this historic weapon.
However, the longbow’s fortunes were not always victorious. At the Battle of Verneuil (1424), the ranks of longbowmen were shattered, although the English ultimately emerged victorious. Their fortunes took a dire turn at the Battle of Patay (1429), where swift French-mounted charges overwhelmed the longbowmen before they could establish a fortified position. An earlier encounter, the Battle of Pontvallain (1370), had also highlighted the longbowmen’s vulnerability when denied sufficient time to prepare defensive positions, cautioning against underestimating the importance of strategic setup for these skilled archers.
The Enduring Legacy of the Longbow
Sadly, no longbows from the dominant era (c. 1250-1450) have survived to the present day, likely due to their wear and tear. Instead, we rely on over 130 bows preserved from the Renaissance period. A remarkable discovery occurred with the sinking of the Mary Rose, Henry VIII’s vessel, off Portsmouth in 1545. Archaeologists recovered over 3,500 arrows and 137 intact longbows among the wreckage, offering a glimpse into the weapon’s legacy.
Through the annals of history, the English longbow emerges as a symbol of power, strategic mastery, and the profound impact it had on medieval warfare. The term “longbow” was coined to distinguish it from the crossbow, first appearing in a Latin administrative document from 1386, referring to bows called “longbows.” A 1444 will proved in York also mentions “longe bowis” among the bequeathed items.
The Origins and Evolution of the Longbow
The origins of the English longbow remain a subject of debate. Before the Norman Conquest, it is challenging to gauge the importance of military archery in Anglo-Saxon warfare. However, it is evident that archery played a significant role under the Normans, as illustrated by the Battle of Hastings. The Anglo-Norman descendants continued to utilize military archery, exemplified by their triumph at the Battle of the Standard in 1138.
During the Anglo-Norman invasions of Wales, the Welsh bowmen inflicted heavy casualties on the invaders. From that point forward, Welsh archers became an integral part of English armies. Giraldus Cambrensis, during his tour of Wales in 1188, noted the impressive qualities of the bows from Gwent, which were not only powerful for long-range shooting but also sturdy enough to withstand close combat.
Historians disagree on whether the archery employed by the Welsh utilized a different type of bow compared to the later English longbow. Traditionally, it was believed that the weapon used before the 14th century was a self-bow measuring between four and five feet in length, commonly referred to as the shortbow. This bow, drawn to the chest rather than the ear, was relatively weaker.
The Debate Over Bow Classifications
In 1985, Jim Bradbury reclassified this weapon as an ordinary wooden bow, arguing that longbows were a developed form of this ordinary bow. He reserved the term “shortbow” for shorter composite bows. Strickland and Hardy expanded on this idea in 2005, suggesting that the shortbow was a myth and that all early English bows were a variant of the longbow.
However, in 2011, Clifford Rogers reaffirmed the traditional case, using various forms of evidence, including an extensive iconographic survey. In 2012, Richard Wadge further contributed to the debate by conducting a comprehensive examination of records, icons, and archaeological evidence. Wadge concluded that longbows coexisted with shorter self-wood bows in England between the Norman Conquest and the reign of Edward III, with powerful longbows shooting heavy arrows only becoming prominent in the late 13th century.
The existence of a technological revolution at the end of the 13th century remains a point of contention among scholars. Nevertheless, it is widely agreed that an effective tactical system involving the mass use of powerful longbows was developed in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.
The Rise of Foot Troops and the Longbow’s Strategic Importance
In 1295, King Edward I initiated significant improvements in organizing his armed forces, establishing uniformly-sized units and a clear chain of command. He introduced the combined use of archers launching an initial assault, followed by cavalry and infantry attacks. This technique proved successful in the Battle of Falkirk in 1298.
The rising importance of foot troops necessitated a substantial expansion in armies. As early as the late 13th century, Edward I led armies consisting of tens of thousands of paid archers and spearmen. This marked a significant shift in recruitment, organization, and, most importantly, payment methods.
The increasing importance of foot troops created both opportunities and necessities for substantial army expansions. Edward I’s campaigns witnessed the incorporation of tens of thousands of paid archers and spearmen, signaling a major change in approaches to recruitment, organization, and payment structures.
The Longbow’s Triumphs and Setbacks
In the annals of medieval warfare, the longbow emerged as the arbiter of fate, shaping the outcomes of English and Welsh battles. Notably, the Battle of Crécy (1346) and the Battle of Agincourt (1415), both fought during the Hundred Years’ War, showcased the longbow’s prowess. These victories followed earlier triumphs at the Battle of Falkirk (1298) and the Battle of Halidon Hill (1333) during the Wars of Scottish Independence.
However, the longbow’s success waned in subsequent conflicts, as demonstrated by the Battle of Verneuil (1424), where the longbowmen’s lines crumbled, and the Battle of Patay (1429), where they faced a charging enemy before setting up defenses. Ultimately, it was the French artillery that decided the war-ending Battle of Castillon (1453).
While the longbow boasted superior speed and accuracy compared to the black-powder weapons that would later replace it, the extensive training required hindered its widespread use. Years of practice were necessary for effective deployment, with war-ready longbows from the Mary Rose boasting draws exceeding 143 pounds of force. Given the seasonal nature of warfare and the agricultural obligations of non-noble soldiers, year-round training posed a significant challenge. Maintaining a standing army proved costly for medieval rulers, leading to a scarcity of significant longbow corps in mainland European armies.
The Longbow’s Legacy and Decline
Despite these challenges, English longbowmen renowned for their specialized training were sought after as mercenaries in various European countries, particularly in Italian city-states and Spain. One notable English Free Company of the 14th century was the White Company, commanded by Sir John Hawkwood, which comprised men-at-arms and longbowmen. The campaigns of the formidable Hungarian king Louis the Great also employed longbowmen.
The longbow persevered until the 16th century, but the advent of firearms altered the dynamics of warfare. Arquebusiers and grenadiers took the stage, gradually displacing the once-dominant longbow. Nevertheless, the English Crown remained adamant in promoting archery, prohibiting other sports and penalizing those without bows.
While the longbow’s military significance waned, it continued to serve as the primary weapon for the Tudor period’s trained bands, the home-defense militia, until their disbandment by Queen Elizabeth I in 1598. The last recorded English battle involving bows occurred during the English Civil War in 1642, when an impromptu town militia armed with bows effectively countered musketeers lacking armor. Royalist forces maintained longbowmen, but the Roundheads did not.
Though longbows persist in sporting and hunting applications to this day, their usage shifted after 1642. Their draw weights decreased, and a stiffened, non-bending center section replaced the continuous bend. Serious military interest waned after the 17th century, but intermittent proposals arose to revive their military application, including from Benjamin Franklin in the 1770s and the Honourable Artillery Company from 1784 to 1794. Even Winston Churchill highlighted a post-Waterloo treatise within the War Office endorsing the longbow’s accuracy, rapid discharge, and effective range over muskets.
Surprisingly, the longbow saw action as late as World War II, with Jack Churchill credited for a longbow kill in France in 1940. While the weapon was considered for use by Commandos, its actual deployment in combat remains uncertain.
The story of the English longbow is a testament to the enduring influence of ancient warfare strategies and the profound impact of technological advancements on the course of history. As we continue to explore the rich tapestry of the past, the longbow’s legacy serves as a reminder of the ingenuity and adaptability of our ancestors in the face of evolving military challenges.
